Involvement by African Parents in the Education of their Children in the Foundation Phase Senosi

The regulatory education system of the past has left a legacy in which disadvantaged families require learning support. Nineteen years after the dawn of democracy in South Africa, parental involvement in the education of their children is still facing challenges in eradicating the huge gap left by the previous education policies. Support for learning plays a critical role in improving the education of the child. Siblings, grandparents and other extended members of the family fulfil a major role in the cognitive development of the child who is never isolated in the extended family. This article investigated the extent to which African parents were supportive in the education of their children. The findings revealed that during the ethnographic observations, some parents appeared to be impatient and harsh towards their children once they realised their children had made a mistake during reading supervision, whereas a few seemed to be more patient and allowed their children more time to correct their mistakes. Furthermore, there was definite evidence of a lack of playing a supportive role by African parents in the education of their children. The ethnographic observations of learners and their educator in the classroom situation indicated that some learners were active and used their own initiative by asking their own questions that were not part from the classwork. During each day of the ethnographic observations, a structured behaviour schedule, based on a five-point scale, was used. The schedule was completed at the end of each school day, reflecting the overall impressions of the learners’ learning behaviour on the relevant points.


Introduction
According to Souto-Manning (2010), all children always find themselves living in two worlds, that is, the world of home and world of school.Brofenbrenner and Morris (1998) contend children's behaviour and development are influenced by their interactions in each context, as well as the connections between settings, including joint participation, communication and the existence of information in each setting with a bearing on the other setting.Epstein (2001) argues that the home and school constitute "overlapping spheres of influence" on children's development and academic achievement, and that the degree to which educators and family members maintain positive relationships with one another helps determine children's academic success.Epstein (2001) further states that schools implementing practices that promote strong school, family and community partnerships should be better able to help children succeed academically because these outreach activities create greater consistency between children's home and school contexts.This study distinguished between family involvement at home and family involvement at school in order to test whether each type of engagement was differentially related to the Foundation Phase learners' acquisition of problem-solving skills.A child's education and overall development are a crucial objective -nothing makes more sense than a healthy partnership in which both parents and teachers overcome their shortcomings and misgivings and agree to work towards achieving the same goal.It is therefore necessary for parents to cooperate on remedial measures and to participate in as many school-related activities as possible.Hughes and Kwok (2007) assert that (1) the quality of teachers' relationships with learners and their parents mediate the associations between learners' background characteristics and teacher-rated classroom engagement; and (2) that learner classroom engagement, in turn, mediates the associations between learnerteacher and parent-teacher relatedness and learner achievement in future learner achievement.When learners experience a sense of belonging at school and supportive relationships with teachers and classmates, they are motivated to participate actively and appropriately in the life of the classroom (Anderman & Anderman 1999;Birch & Ladd 1997;Skinner &Belmont1993).
Uniformity in the classroom can be maintained in order to fuse the learners' different backgrounds, based on the ethos of the school's vision and mission.This suggests that social contracts of this nature will require quality agents (i.e.teachers) who are familiar with the vision and mission of the school in line with the Department of Basic Education's (DBE's) primary school policy, which puts the needs and aspirations of the learner first.Probably the most difficult unpaid job is that of a parent.The hours are long and the pay is non-existent in terms of monetary rewards.However, that does not deter most parents from working to provide the best for their children.Many parents want their children to learn more than they did and have opportunities that they never had.The challenges for parents increase when their children enter school.Even though a child enters a classroom, leaving his or her parent's side for six or more hours a day, the role of a parent does not cease to exist, it merely changes.Parents and families play a critical role in their children's education.Schools simply cannot educate every child independently.Schools need support from a variety of resources, the most important being community and family (LaRocque, Kleiman, & Darling 2011).
The involvement of parents in education is perceived to be instrumental in improving children's access, attendance and retention in school.However, this involvement also has the potential to improve parents' sense of empowerment, and support the greater achievement of valued educational outcomes.Parental involvement may even compensate for the lack of meaningful learning in schools, especially when an environment conducive to learning is created in the home (Grant Lewis & Motala 2004;Fleisch 2008).
Numerous studies have documented the positive correlation between parent involvement in education and academic achievement.Galindo (2012) found that, on average, students whose parents were more involved at school had higher educational expectations and more substantial gains in reading and mathematics at the end of kindergarten.Creating a bridge between home and school is a major goal for many school reform initiatives.Discontinuity between the school and home culture tied to inequities in the social structure is often cited as the cause of poor achievement among minority children (Vasquez, Pease & Shannon 1994).It follows logically that educational outcomes for children from minority backgrounds can be improved both when schools value and integrate the children's home strengths, beliefs, goals and practices into the school community (Souto-Manning 2010), and when families understand and support the school's expectations (Civil 2007).In order to achieve this goal, schools need to take the initiative to create effective family and school partnerships.

Methodological Issues
The research was both qualitative and quantitative.It was partly qualitative because it was non-experimental, and data were collected verbally and through observation.The research was also quantitative because some data were collected through structured observation, a behaviour schedule and a questionnaire, coupled with semi-structured interviews.The following two research questions guided the study: What are the capabilities of african parents in helping their children with schoolwork and homework?Howdo these parents impart problem-solving skills in the learning of their children?
The researcher administered the questionnaire at the respondents' homes on different dates according to appointment.The researcher explained to parents that the questionnaire was not a test, and as such there were no right or wrong answers.The instructions to be followed were carefully explained to parents.This research involved the parents of Grade 2 learners in the school involved in the research and their children at their homes.After filling in the questionnaire with each parent, the researcher explained in detail any issues that were not clear.The purpose was to obtain more descriptive information in order to promote a qualitative understanding of the quantitative data.
Once the interview had been concluded, the researcher set up and engaged in participant observation of a facilitated learning event between the parent and his/her child.The Grade 2 learner in the family was given a learning task relating to work done at school on that day in mathematics/numeracy or language.The purpose was to get the parents involved, for example, in reading with their children, doing numeracy tasks together and holding discussions on what should be done to improve their children' education.
A behaviour schedule was further applied to the Grade 2 learners in the classroom in which a descriptive five-point scale (1-5) was used.The values in this scale were as follows: • 5 > very good performance The observation of the learners' behaviours covered the following, inter alia: • interest in the task • attention to the task The purpose of the behaviour schedule was to systematically observe particular learning behaviours.The parents of some of the learners who demonstrated many dimensions of significantly positive learning behaviours were illiterate, whereas the parents of some of the learners who displayed a many dimensions of significantly negative learning behaviours were literate and semi-literate.This does not necessarily mean that literate parents can have a positive influence on the education of their children.This method proved that even illiterate parents can be supportive, depending on their motivation.
In this study, the researcher distinguished between learners' numeracy and reading achievement in the classroom and parent involvement in the education of their children at home.This conceptualisation is most closely aligned with studies that have distinguished forms of involvement based on the locale of the parenting behaviours (e.g.Hoover-Dempsey et al. 2005).

Learners' numeracy and reading achievement
During the first few days of observation, the learners seemed to be quiet and tense because they were obviously anxious about the researcher's presence.The researcher did not observe the children and educator on the first two days to allow them to become accustomed to the researcher's presence so that spontaneous and authentic actions could later be observed.The researcher wanted to observe how the educator taught reading and numeracy skills, but mainly how the learners behaved during the lessons.If during reading they were asked to say what they thought was going to happen next or what the picture was about, some learners would think and use their existing knowledge to add what they thought would happen next or describe the picture to the class.They appeared to be good readers and also had insight into the meaning of the story and the educator's questions, while others manifested somewhat passive behaviour.Regarding numeracy, some learners were slow writing down numbers and appeared to be struggling with addition, subtraction or multiplication.

Parent involvement in educational activities at home
Parents play a vital role in laying the foundation for learning to listen, speak, read and write, above all, for supervising all learning.According to Kenway (1996), parents who speak and read to their children contribute to better performance in their children's reading at school, even when the parents cannot speak the language of learning and teaching (e.g.English) in the school.
In this study it was found that some parents' willingness to help their children with learning tasks fostered good relationships.For example, in doing the work repeatedly and reading aloud, they engaged their children's active attention.During these efforts more correct responses were observed, for example, there was a close relationship in some of the families in the sense that some of the children wanted to take the lead by reading to their parents instead.Their parents would also come up with examples relating to what the text was about.
However, it was further observed that some of the learners were not comfortable when doing their homework with their parents.They appeared to feel threatened, possibly because it was their first experience working in a stranger's presence (the researcher), or because they knew their parents were extremely strict, from which one could infer that a strict or neglectful parent poses a direct threat to the cognitive development of the child.Some of the parents asked their children to read a sentence more than once to practise the art of reading fluently.If they found or realised that the pronunciation was not good or the child was hesitant, he/she was asked to read aloud.In some instances, when a mistake was made, the parent would explain the meaning of the unfamiliar word to the child.Desimone (1999) found that the meaning and working together of parent and child differ systematically according to particular family characteristics.41 N % N % N % N % N % N % N % N % N % N % N % N % N % N % Fathers 8 17.0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 12.5 1 12.5 0 0 0 0 2 25.0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 12.5 Mothers 39 83.0 1 2.6 2 5.1 1 2.6 4 10.3 3 7.7 1 2.6 5 12.8 3 7.7 5 2.8 3 7.7 5 2.6 3 7.7 1 2.6 1 2.6 Total 47 100 1 2.1 2 4.3 1 2.1 5 10.6 4 8.5 1 2.1 5 10.6 5 10.6 5 10.5 3 6.4 1 2.1 3 6.4 1 2. Author: Senosi SS ( 2004)

Data analysis
The relevance of the home language, living area and age of the learners to the learners' learning behaviours and/or the parents' influence on their learning behaviours merits consideration.Data were therefore analysed as follows: Table 1 indicates that in total there were more girls (56.4%) than boys (43.6%) in the sample.Tsonga was the language most spoken in 79.5% of the homes.Tswana was quite strongly represented (12.8%), leaving three learners fairly isolated in linguistic terms -one boy and one girl who spoke North Sotho at home and one English-speaking girl from Zambia.A total of 64.1% of the learners resided in the township, while 33.3% lived in an informal settlement and only one learner, from Zambia, lived in an urban area.The 15 girls living in the township (68.2% of the girls) represented 9.4% more of their total group, compared with the ten boys of their group (58.8% of boys).There were 79.5% learners in the expected seven to eight age group for Grade 2, with 10.3% under age at six years old, and 10.3% over age at nine to 13 years old.Of the four over-age learners, three (7.7% of the total) were girls and one (2.6% of the total) was a boy.
One would expect family size to play a role in the form of parental involvement and the amount of time parents spend on the learning of their children.
Table 2 indicates the gender and age of the parents who participated in the research study.The Parental Involvement in Learners' Education Questionnaire (PILEQ) was used and semi-structured interviews conducted with the parents of 38 learners.One respondent was the grandmother of one of the learners.Only eight (8) fathers could be reached.The biographical information of the parents is summarised in table 2.
Table 2 indicates that the age group of 30 and below included two fathers (25.0%, aged 29 and 30 years).Although the number of mothers in this range (11 -28.3%) was comparable, the distribution differed in that the youngest mother was five years younger than the youngest father.
To gain a better understanding of the capabilities of African parents and how supportive they are in their children's education, descriptive statistics were used to determine the extent of the help being offered.All the family responses fell into only four categories and they all gave only one response.For example, of the families, 59.0% explained language items to their children; 28.2% corrected errors in numeracy tasks through the use of counters (pebbles and matchsticks); 10.2% read to their children sentence by sentence, either in Tsonga or English; and only 2.6% referred the child to his/her siblings for help.About half of the families (46.1%) appeared to be in the habit of checking their children's work.
Ten families appeared to display some interest in reading with their children.They indicated that even though they could not afford to buy learning materials for their children, they borrowed reading materials from relatives and could generally rely on the school facilities.Seven of these parents were more interested in reading than in writing.The reading aloud of a few sentences, with children reading after them for a few minutes, was generally preferred.One parent indicated that he had never been exposed to writing, but he knew how to read, which is why he liked reading more than writing.He added the following: "I do not even know how to write my name, but I know how to read it."Some parents indicated that although they were educated, they never did reading with their children or promoted their problem-solving skills, and they were not actively involved because of their domestic chores, especially after working long hours.However, they did instruct their children when they returned from school, to finish their schoolwork before going out to play outside.
Few parents did not participate at all in reading with their children because of their own lack of literacy.Two of them indicated that their children were the first born in the family and that there is no one to help them with their schoolwork.They added that they could not read or write themselves and that their children were totally dependent on their educators.When asked why they did not ask relatives or friends for assistance, they responded as follows: " We do not want to bother people.We normally ask for food from them and now we believe it will be too much for them.We struggle to pay for the school and we feel it is okay." It would appear that even though some parents are not literate and numerate, they do try to support the education of their children.Research by Taylor andDorsey-Gaines (1988, in McCarthy 2000) found that the families used literacy for a variety of purposes, audiences and situations.They read to gain information to satisfy their practical needs, schedule daily functions and learn about events.Reading was also used for recreational and educational purposes.
The parents' willingness to help their children with numeracy and to read with them was encouraged by the researcher on completion of the task.The following question was asked:" What have you learned from participating in the learning task?"One parent responded as follows: "I learned to be more patient with my child.Sometimes when we work together, my child teaches me since I do not speak English very well and I have discovered that when parents help, children will know that the school is important."To some parents it was a fairly new experience.One parent, for example, stated the following:" I have never done this before.It is exciting and you get a wonderful feeling."Another exclaimed: "I learned about ways of helping like telling stories and reciting poems and drawing stories that I did not know.I have valued and enjoyed the whole exercise.Working together with my child has created an active attention in her schoolwork for the future." However, some parents indicated that they want to play a role in the education of their children, declaring that they should be trained in such a way that they will understand their cognitive role, to give cognitive support to their children by showing them how to solve problems and how to work with others in a group.South African research therefore indicates that, while African parents value better education, increased expectations may not always be met (Bot 1992).This could explain why some of these parents are not always involved in the education of their children, which could in turn result in poor performance.Some parents are impatient and do not have the necessary knowledge or are illiterate, which explains their failure to support their children.The literature confirms that parental illiteracy and lack of knowledge of the actual function of a school, may result in parents' reluctance to help or supervise their children with their schoolwork (Oosthuizen 1992;Van der Linde 1993;Van der Westhuizen & Legotlo 1996).
In his research, Cleaver (1994) found that many parents regard their children as extensions of themselves and dream that their children will succeed where they have failed.Cherian (1991) maintains that the interest parents have in education tends to be associated with their academic motivation and the willingness of their children to be active learners.One should thus note that the educational outcomes are achieved through the reciprocal interaction between the qualities the learner brings from home and the qualities of the school.

Discussion of Findings
Regarding the way parents support their children with their homework, only a small number of parents appeared to be actively involved.It was found that their children were aware that when returning from school they are expected to do their homework before they become involved in other activities.Although a considerable number of parents appeared to show interest in helping their children with their homework, they were not actively supportive because of time constraints.Because some of these parents leave home early when their children are still asleep, there is no direct supervision on their part.A number of parents mentioned that they did not have patience to help their children with their homework because they said that they had difficulty concentrating after spending such long hours at work.
The ethnographic observations made at the learners' homes revealed that, in numeracy and reading tasks, the parents spent a few minutes using their fingers and counters (e.g.pebbles) to count out the numeracy questions or reread the sentences the children had to study, until the children were able to do the task on their own.Some parents like reading because, according to them, it refreshes their memory, prevents them from yawning, keeps them active and prevents them from listening to gossip.Parents who could not read or write instructed their children to listen carefully to the instructions given by siblings and/or aunts.If the child (learner) made a mistake, the sibling and/or aunt would patiently ask him/her to repeat the task and do it aloud until he/she got it right.If the same child still had problems, the sibling and/or aunt would continue to reading with the child until he/she could read on his/her own.
The researcher observed that some parents would become impatient with and harsh towards their children once they realised they had made a mistake.One parent said that mistakes were not permitted, while another said if her child kept on making a mistake there would be no future for the child.Another parent admonished her child, telling her to be quick and not to waste time.Other parents, however were more patient and allowed their children more time to correct their mistakes.At the end of the exercise, they indicated that they felt more comfortable about being present when their children were involved in a learning task.The majority of the parents were more knowledgeable in Tsonga than in English.Some were completely fluent in reading Tsonga, but mistakes were encountered in reading English.Generally, the parents were enthusiastic about by the kind of exercise presented and displayed growing eagerness to know more about the best ways to approach the learning tasks.In the numeracy tasks, most parents helped their children by using counters (e.g.pebbles and beans) for counting.If the child happened to add incorrectly, the parent would tell him/her to repeat the work using his/her fingers.Parents encouraged the children to speak out when counting to enhance their concentration and avoid repeating the same mistakes.The ethnographic observations made with learners and their educator in the classroom revealed that some learners were active and used their own initiative by asking their own questions in addition to the classwork.Some learners enjoyed answering questions in full sentences and were eager to participate in the conversations by asking questions.If, during reading, they were asked to say what they thought was going to happen next or what the picture was about, they would think and use their existing knowledge to add what they thought would happen or describe the picture to the class.These learners appeared to be good readers and also had insight in to the meaning of the story and the educator's questions.
Some of the learners were competent in both Tsonga and English.Others, however, would lose interest during the lesson, would look around, appear withdrawn, look shy or would not follow the instructions or explanations correctly, while some would even look bored and start making a noise.These learners frequently had pronunciation problems in English and they seemed to have limited writing skills and strategies.Regarding numeracy, some of the learners were slow writers, while others struggled to add, subtract or multiply.The majority of the learners were able to finish the work ahead of time and some even volunteered to give the answers to the sums written on the board.
The findings on the behaviour schedule revealed that some learners demonstrated a many dimensions of significantly positive learning behaviours in comparison with the mean percentage of the total class.The parents of some of these learners had appeared to be supportive during the learning tasks observed by the researcher in their homes, which could have led to positive learning behaviours manifested by these learners at school.The parents of some of these learners were found to be strict and impatient during the learning tasks observed in their homes, but despite their negative treatment, their children showed significantly positive learning behaviours, which could have therefore been the result of other supportive factors.The same learners displayed significantly negative learning behaviours in only one dimension (e.g.execution of instructions or the amount of work or self-initiated remarks) The findings from the Learning Behaviours' Observation Schedule again revealed that some learners demonstrated a many dimensions of significantly negative learning behaviours in comparison with the mean percentage for the whole class.
Some of these learners indeed appeared to be strict, impatient and less willing during the learning tasks observed by the researcher in their homes, which could have contributed to their significantly negative learning behaviours.Since some of these learners demonstrated significantly positive learning behaviours in two, three and five dimensions (e.g.confidence, skill displayed, knowledge displayed, group behaviour, self-initiated remarks and self-initiated questions), the findings suggest that the degree of negative learning behaviours was lower than the degree of positive learning behaviours.

Conclusions
Parental involvement early in their children's lives steers them in the right direction to succeed academically.Their interest in their children's learning shows that they value education.Their involvement may range from playing learning games at home to communicating with teachers and volunteering at school.
The overall conclusions concerning the main question are as follows: What are the capabilities of the African parents in helping their children with their schoolwork and homework?How do these parents impart problem-solving skills in the learning of their children?
The literature review revealed that support for learning should be accompanied by the motivational value of personal interest, encouragement and positive praise in the family.Furthermore support for learning makes a major contribution to a child's subsequent reading development.It was found that children with less experience of being read to or helped at home tended to exhibit somewhat poorer literacy when they started school and also seemed to make slower progress in learning to read.
It was found that some parents were capable of helping their children with their learning and supporting them, for example, reading with them.Some parents even explained the lesson or task to their children and checked their schoolwork and/or homework.Others, in a unique fashion, corrected errors, for example, in numeracy tasks through the use of counters (pebbles and matchsticks).

Recommendations
Children need to feel that they are making progress.They need continual encouragement and praise for good performance, because any success motivates children.Parents are in an ideal position to motivate and help their children learn, even if they have only basic education and/or learn alongside their children.By sharing, parents not only bring their child's language and activities into family life, but they also influence their young children's attitudes to language, problem-solving ideas and other cultures.
According to Epstein (1995;2001), school, family and community are important "spheres of influence" on children's development and a child's educational development is enhanced when these three environments work collaboratively towards shared goals.Epstein encouraged schools to create greater overlapping between the school, home and community through the implementation of activities across the following six types of involvement: parenting, communication, volunteering, learning at home, decision making and collaboration with the community.By implementing activities across all these types of involvement, educators can help improve learners' achievements and experiences at school.
Research has shown that learners and family characteristics affect levels of parental involvement.Working class families in which mothers work full time tend to be less involved in the education of their children.Also, less educated parents tend to be more interested in helping their children learn.
It is therefore vital for schools to take note of the following types of involvement as motivational ideas for parents: • Although most parents do not know how to help their children with their education, with guidance and support, they may become increasingly involved in home learning activities and find themselves with opportunities to teach, to be role models and to guide their children.• When schools encourage children to practise reading at home with their parents, the children make significant gains in reading achievement compared to those who only practise at school.• Parents who read to their children, have books available, take trips, monitor their children's TV viewing and provide stimulating experiences contribute to learner achievement.

Table1 :
Gender, home language, living area and age of Grade 2 learners in the research school Author: Senosi SS (2004)3.3Columns for the10-and 12-year olds contained no data and were thus not included

Table 2 :
Gender and age of the parents who participated in the research